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History of Hypnotism

Hypnosis is older than medicine itself and has been with us since mankind had its beginnings. Virtually every culture and race of people has used it. Cave drawings suggest that man was experimenting with hypnosis 100,00 years ago. In Biblical times, people went to "sleep temples" to be cured of their illnesses by the Egyptian priests. The ancient Chinese employed hypnotic techniques in the form of prayer and meditation. There is evidence that the Romans used "magic sleep" for various purposes. The Greeks unknowingly used hypnosis, thinking that cures came from the Gods.

Hippocrates wrote about impressing health on the ill by inducing trances and making passes. Throughout the centuries, many great medical men have studied, researched, and experimented with hypnosis. In doing so, they usually were labeled charlatans, quacks, or imposters. It is impossible to mention all of those individuals who contributed to the development and progress of modern hypnosis, but it seems necessary to mention a few. Ancient history: Pre-History to Mid-18th Century Shamans, religious rituals, sweat lodge ceremonies, music, drumming, chanting, drugs and meditation

Pre-History to 3,000 BCE (BCE = BC, and CE = AD in modern history writing.) Shamans and medicine people learned early on to make suggestions to the sick and convince them they would get well. Many of the remedies they employed were given in an atmosphere of high excitement, accompanied with drumming, the use of fire, and other mysteries. Kings and leaders, including Genghis Khan, found their messages controlled the bicameral minds of early human beings.

3,000 BCE to 1,700 CE Wong Tai, the Father of Chinese Medicine (2,600 BCE) left details of trance-producing incantations and healing activities. The Jewish Scriptures, the Talmud, and the Hindu Vedas gave detailed accounts of procedures we might consider today to be hypnosis. Hipprocates, the Father of Western Medicine, wrote about hypnotic incidents. We get the term "hypnosis" from the Greek word for sleep. Jesus of Nazareth and his disciples cured illnesses with a technique that has been described by some scholars as hypnotherapy. 1,700 CE to 1,900 CE In 1774, Dr. Franz Anton Mesmer, an Austrian physician, witnessed exorcisms by Fr. Maximilian Hell, who touched subjects with an iron cross. Mesmer developed a practice he called “Animal Magnetism.” His hypnotic work was dismissed by a French committee of inquiry, including the American Minister in Paris, Benjamin Franklin. Franklin declared it was the imagination of Mesmer’s subjects rather than his power that produced the beneficial results. Surgeon John Elliotson, a leading doctor in London, performed 1,834 surgical operations using magnetism. James Braid, a Scottish physician, renamed the technique hypnosis from the Greek word for sleep. It was becoming increasingly obvious that it was the client’s imagination that made hypnotism work, and not any power possessed by the hypnotist. In India, British surgeon James Esdaile performed thousands of operations using hypno-anesthesia. His important contribution was officially ignored. In France, a country physician, Ambroise August Liebault, treated some of his patients with hypnosis. He was the first man to actually teach that hypnosis is suggestion accepted by clients, and not any kind of power that hypnotists exercise over them. This is now taken for granted by professional hypnotists.

1,500 CE to the Present French pharmacist Émile Coué developed theories of waking hypnosis and auto-suggestion that he successfully brought from France to the United States. He finally established the important concept that all hypnosis is self-hypnosis. In America, Dr. Milton Erickson developed new psychological techniques that revolutionized the clinical practice of hypnotism. Hypnotism was used to treat trauma cases in the two World Wars. Dentists began to use hypnotic-anesthesia regularly in their practices, and recognition of the therapeutic practice of hypnotism was granted by dental and medical associations in several countries. Since the 1950s, professional associations for hypnotists have been formed in many countries, including the USA and Britain. National laws have recognized the validity of hypnotism, whether practiced by medical doctors or by professionally certified lay practitioners. Many new techniques have been developed to enhance the effectiveness of the work done by hypnotists, including Light and Sound induction devices.

Some famous historical personalities who used hypnosis and auto-suggestion Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91),

Frederick Chopin (1810-1849)

Thomas Edison (1847-1931)

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Henry Ford (1863-1947)

Winston S. Churchill (1874-1965)

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

One thing that will become apparent in the following is that many of those we consider to be pioneers in the field of hypnosis were frequently dismissed by their peers. Even though many proved to be very successful healers.

1734 - 1815 Franz Anton Mesmer was born in Vienna. Mesmer is considered the father of hypnosis. He is remembered for the term Mesmerism which described a process of inducing trance through a series of passes he made with his hands and/or magnets over people. He worked with a person's animal magnetism (mental and orgonic energies). The medical community eventually discredited him despite his considerable success treating a variety of ailments.

1795-1860 James Braid, an English physician, originally opposed mesmerism (as it became to be known) but then became interested. He said that cures were not due to animal magnetism, but rather to suggestion. He developed the eye fixation technique (also know as Braidism) of inducing relaxation and called it hypnosis (after Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep), as he thought the phenomenon was a form of sleep. Later, realizing his error, he tried to change the name to monoeidism (meaning, influence of a single idea) however, the original name stuck.

1825 - 1893 Jean Marie Charcot, a French neurologist, disagreed with the Nancy School of Hypnotism and contended that hypnosis was simply a manifestation of hysteria. There was bitter rivalry between Charcot and the Nancy group (Liebault and Bernheim). He revived Mesmer's theory of Animal Magnetism and identified the three stages of trance; lethargy, catalepsy and somnambulism.

1845 - 1947 Pierre Janet was a French neurologist and psychologist who was, initially, opposed to the use of hypnosis until he discovered its relaxing effects and promotion of healing. Janet was one of the few people who continued to show an interest in hypnosis during the Psychoanalytic Age.

1849-1936 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - a Russian physiologist who actually was more focused on the study of the digestive process. He is known primarily for his development of the concept of the conditioned reflex (or Stimulus Response Theory). In his classic experiment, he trained hungry dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was previously associated with the sight of food. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology in 1904 for his work on digestive secretions. Though he had nothing to do with hypnosis, his Stimulus Response Theory is a cornerstone in linking and anchoring behaviors, particularly in NLP.

1857 - 1926 Émile Coué a physician formulated the Laws of Suggestion. He is also known for encouraging his patients to say to themselves 20-30 times each night before going to sleep, "Everyday in every way, I am getting better and better." He also discovered that delivering positive suggestions when prescribing medication proved to be a more effective cure than prescribing medications alone. He eventually abandoned the concept of hypnosis in favor of just using suggestion, feeling hypnosis and the hypnotic state impaired the efficiency of the suggestion.

1856-1939 - Sigmund Freud traveled to Nancy and studied with Liebault and Bernheim, and then did additional study with Charcot. Freud did not incorporate hypnosis in his therapeutic work, however, because he felt he could not hypnotize patients to a sufficient depth, felt that the cures were temporary, and that hypnosis stripped patients of their defenses. Freud was considered a poor hypnotist, given his paternalism. However, his clients often went into trance and he often, unknowingly, performed non-verbal inductions when he would place his hand on his patient's head to signify the doctor-dominant, patient-submissive roles. Because of his early dismissal of hypnosis in favor of psychoanalysis, hypnosis was almost totally ignored.

1875-1961 - Carl Jung, a student and colleague of Freud's, rejected Freud's psychoanalytical approach and developed his own interests. He developed the concept of the collective unconscious and archetypes. Though he did not actively use hypnosis, he encouraged his patients to use active imagination to change old memories. He often used the concept of the inner guide in healing work. He believed that the inner mind could be accessed through tools like the I Ching and astrology. The conservative medical community rejected him as a mystic. However, healers actively embrace many of his ideas and theories to this day.

1932-1974 - Milton Erickson, a psychologist and psychiatrist pioneered the art of indirect suggestion in hypnosis. He is considered the father of modern hypnosis. His methods bypassed the conscious mind through the use of both verbal and nonverbal pacing techniques including metaphor, confusion, and many others. He was a colorful character and has immensely influenced the practice of contemporary hypnotherapy, and its official acceptance by the AMA. His work, combined with the work of Satir and Perls, was the basis for Bandler and Grinder's Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP).

A Return to Mesmer

The modern art of hypnotism started in Vienna with a man by the name of Franz (originally Friedrich) Anton Mesmer,born May 23, 1734, Iznang auf der Höri, near Radolfzell, on the German side of Lake Constance; died March 5, 1815, Meersburg, Germany.. Franz Anton Mesmer was born and raised in the Swabian village of Iznang auf der Höri, near the Bodensee (Lake of Constance). His father was a forester employed by the archbishop of Konstanz; his mother the daughter of a locksmith. It was a large family, Franz Anton was the third of nine children, Catholic, and not particularly prosperous. After preliminary studies in a local monastic school in Konstanz, Mesmer commenced the study of philosophy at the Jesuit university of Dillingen, Bavaria, changing in 1752 to theology, presumably as a scholarship student preparing for the priesthood. He continued his studies from 1753 at the University of Ingolstadt, where he soon abandoned theology. It is not known when and where he obtained his doctorate in philosophy The modern hypnosis, however, is in debt not with a physician but to a clergyman, a catholic priest who lived at Klosters, Switzerland. Father Johann Gassner used hypnotic techniques to perform what he considered to be exorcisms. Mesmer was said to have watched a number of performances by Gassner in the early 1770's. Mesmer, unable to believe Gassner's hypothesis that patients were possessed by demons, believed that the metal crucifix held by the Father was responsible for magnetizing the patient and hence developed his ideas and explanation of the results into a theory of animal magnetism, which he first tested in 1774 by treating a 28 year old female, Franziska Osterlin. Mesmer applied magnets to his patients’ bodies and produced remarkable results, especially in the case of a young woman suffering from hysteria. Unlike Hell, Mesmer did not attribute his cures to any power in the magnets themselves. Instead, he argued that the body was analogous to a magnet and that the fluid ebbed and flowed according to the laws of magnetic attraction. Having moved from «animal gravitation» to «animal magnetism,», in 1775 he announced his new theory in Sendschreiben an einen auswärtigen Arzt. This work was reprinted several times. Mesmer may have believed that he possessed "animal magnetism" and that he possessed healing forces; basing his practice on these concepts, he developed therapeutic sessions resembling séances. Mesmer at first used magnets, electrodes, and other devices to effect his cures, but, after arousing suspicion among the Viennese physicians, he preferred to utilize his hands. At the séances several patients sat around a vat of dilute sulfuric acid while holding hands or grasping iron bars protruding from the solution. Mesmer used hypnosis to cure anything from minor aches and pains to blindness. We get the term mesmerized from him, which describes the process he used to induce a trance over his subject. He would make a series of passes with his hands or a magnet over people. He said that he was working with a persons animal magnetism. In discussions of hypnotic suggestion the question of "rapport" was again raised. Joseph Delboeuf introduced the idea of reciprocal suggestion. Pierre Janet and Alfred Binet spoke of "electivity," of "somnambulant passion" and "experimental love." Additionally, there was interest in the psychology of hypnotic states of consciousness. These were described in terms of dissociation (Janet) or hypnoid states (Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer).Although he claimed to help many people he was eventually discredited by the medical community. One of those who discredited him eventually became interested in his work. James Braid, an English physician, said that these cures were not due to animal magnetism, but could be attributed to suggestion. He developed an eye fixation technique and eventually came up with the term hypnotism. Later on a man by the name of Emile Coue came upon the scene and developed the Laws of suggestion which he used as guide-lines for his studies. The most recent psychologist to have an impact in the field of hypnosis was the father of modern hypnosis, Milton Erickson. His non verbal and verbal pacing techniques are still used to this day. To look at hypnosis and say that it is one certain thing is very difficult to do, because the very nature of hypnosis is still a matter of great debate. There are those who see hypnosis as a state, or "state theorists", and those who don't believe it is a state, or "non state theorists". The main argument of the state theorist is that there is something different about the mental state of one who has been hypnotized. This is not easy to prove, and so there are not many state theorists. On the other hand there are the non state theorists who believe that there is nothing different or more correct about being hypnotized. Although both sides can clearly say what they believe hypnosis is not, they cannot agree on what it is. The most popular view of hypnosis is that it is a form of sleep. This is because the person who is hypnotized, looks like someone who is either asleep, or falling asleep, or because of the ease at which a person falls asleep when suggested by the hypnotist, and also because some of the drugs that induce sleep can also produce the characteristics of a hypnotic trance. But this was disproved by M.J. Bass, who did a number of experiments on heart rate, EEG patterns, and respiration, and found that sleep has nothing to do with the hypnotic state, it is a completely separate state of being. If anything this trance state can be compared to that of daydreaming or the very initial stages of sleep. In these stages your awareness is shifted, you are in a very relaxed state and you are also highly suggestible. In a hypothetical situation if we were to look at a time line of EEG patterns we would see at the one end the delta and theta waves of a person who is in deep sleep. If we were to move up the line a little way we could see the brain waves of some one who is meditating, and if we went farther up we could eventually see the brain waves of someone who had been hypnotized. What this shows us is that sleep and hypnosis cannot occur at the same time so therefore, hypnosis is not sleep. The most simple and accepted description of hypnosis that can be given is that it is an altered state of conscious. According to Erika Fromm (1979) "An altered state of consciousness is a cognitive state different from the waking state." (p83) To reach the state of hypnosis there are a few different methods. One popular method is that of induction. This is basically a series of suggestions from the hypnotist to the party being hypnotized. Usually this consists of immobilization, which involves having the subject sit quietly in a comfortable chair, and often to fixate their eyes. From there the hypnotist uses monotony, or the simple repetition of his voice to put the patient into a kind of partial sleep. While the patient is experiencing this partial sleep, they start to regress, and are shut off from the outside world, except for the voice of the hypnotist. Through this continuous entering of the hypnotists voice it invades the patients thoughts. Eventually the patient becomes confused and begins to think that the hypnotists voice is his own thoughts. This confusion is what causes the patient to become highly suggestible. What we see overall is that the patients awareness is lowered as well, their sensory output is suppressed. Gill and Brenman (1959) describe what the hypnotist does, (1) he impoverishes the inflow of sensory stimuli to the subject by limiting the subjects bodily activity, (2) attempts to alter the quality of bodily awareness of the subject, (3) suggests a kind of dissociation, by focusing his attention on a movement itself, so that movements that normally take place voluntarily may take place involuntary, and, finally, (4) breaks into a normal adjustment of the subjects human relationships by taking over control of the subject through creating an atmosphere of quasi magic. This in turn leads into state of hypnosis. Although this is a very effective way to bring about hypnosis, in is not necessary to go through this particular induction process. Weitzenhoffer, Gough, and Landes (1959), discovered that they could produce the state of hypnosis by informing the people they were going to be hypnotized and using a separate form of induction involving an eye fixation technique. They also tried this technique with people who were not informed that they were going to be hypnotized and found that it did not work. So although this technique can be successful, hypnosis will only occur under certain conditions.